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Monday, 21 April 2008 15:05
Redefining the Chinese Problem in Indonesia
Redefining the Chinese Problem in Indonesia
Love and hate relationship. That’s the terminology used by Mely G. Tan, a senior socialist, to describe the relationship between Chinese people and other ethnics in Indonesia. At one side, Chinese people are loved, for example on badminton games. But on the other side, Chinese people are not just once being victims by mass amuck.
What causes a dark history for an ethnic that is the third biggest amount from Indonesian people? Leo Suryadinata says that it is because the trade and economic activity, the relation with foreign culture, the ethnic relation with China, and the influence over the sum power, so that the politic, culture, and economy caused by the minority become the Chinese problem in Indonesia.
Since when did the problem arise? Didn’t Chinese people come to Indonesia since the first century? How does this problem still exist until today?
What Happened in The Past
The relationship between China and Archipelago (Indonesia) has been connected for centuries, even before this country existed. There are proofs about this. Begin with prehistoric proof, such as the axe from Neolithic era, the Moslem spreading, batik pattern at the east coast Java, until Hindu ceremony at Bali, and much more. During that time, the Chinese people and the other ethnics lived side by side in peace for centuries, and affected the way of live of the societies.
Entering the 18th and 19th century, China economic situation affected the immigration flow of its citizens. The economy had stagnation at the end of Qing Dynasty authority. At the same time, the Dutch came to Indonesia, opened new mines and needed lots of workers. The opening of Suez Canal also affected great immigration of Chinese women, so that Chinese men, who before that married the local women, preferred to marry the same nationality women. During the 19th century, the growths of Chinese people in Batavia were five times higher, from 100,000 people became 500,000 people.
At this time the Chinese racialism began. The Dutch with its devide et impera politic that was purposed to separate and authorize, needed a way to imperishable its power in Indonesia. At that time, Chinese people had already had trade network that was pioneered for centuries during the Silk Road was connected. Then the competition between VOC and Chinese trader came up. The Dutch forced Pass and Zoning system – grouping Chinese people at a certain area. Then came up what people call Pecinan. Chinese people had to use pass ticket to get out of the Pecinan area, they were only permitted to study at the Chinese special school. The Dutch also divide the residents into 3 classes; they were the Dutch people, the East Asia people (Chinese people), and the native people.
This colonialism made Chinese people developed their own culture. Plus with the anti-Manchuria action and the fall of dynasty era, grew nationalism. Nationality identity as a nation overseas came up. The declaration of republic country by Dr. Sun Yat Sen and the expansion to Japan made nationalism nostalgia about forbear land more came up.
Then, come up the separating wall between Chinese people and the majority of Indonesian people. Dutch once again used this condition. Some chaos was on purpose created among the Chinese community, and the Dutch showed as the redeemer. So that, it was like that Dutch was a hero for Chinese people. The native people thought that Chinese people were the Dutch’s ally.
This problem was inherited by the Dutch as a wound, which was wounded again and again. During revolution time in the year 1945 – 1949, again the racialism explosion was created to make bad impression if the Dutch gave its authority up to Indonesia as a young republic country.
Unfortunately, the same trick was done through the New Order. Chinese people were used as scapegoats and milk-cows, and leaded to be economic animal. They were politically weak and economically used.
It was very ironic, the deceiving propaganda of Dutch and New Order government was believed by most of Indonesian people. Their image was believed as one rich homogenous group; did not care about nationality problem, greedy, looked for own benefit, and exclusive. These things were always said again and again for more than 30 years. Though if we look deeper, there was never a same opinion among the Chinese people in Indonesia.
Chinese People Heterogeneity in Indonesia
Not much people realize the fact that Chinese people in Indonesia are never homogenous. Culturally, they are divided to totok and crossbreed. Totok is labelled to them who come from China, speak Mandarin, and less fluent speaking Indonesia. Crossbreed is the generations that are born and live in Indonesia, and speak Indonesian.
In religion matter, they are Christians, Catholics, Buddhists, Khonghucu, and not less of Moslems.
Economically, not all of them are rich trader as said in the meantime. Many Chinese people work as labours, fishermen, farmers, and live in poor such as at Tangerang – Banten area and Singkawang – Kalimantan.
Legally, they are classified as Indonesian citizens (WNI – Warga Negara Indonesia) and foreign citizens (WNA – Warga Negara Asing). Foreign citizens are divided to pro-Beijing and pro-Taiwan.
Chinese people’s politic orientations were different from each other. During the Dutch colonialism, Chinese people politic orientation was divided into they who were oriented to China, they who were oriented to Dutch, and they who were oriented to Indonesia. They who were oriented to China hated pressures from Dutch and supported the form of the Republic of China. They who were oriented to Dutch like Chung Hwa Hui kept the peranakan culture with the taste of Dutch. They also agreed with Dutch education. The Chinese nationalist people, such as Partai Tionghoa Indonesia, openly against the Chinese people who pro-Dutch and suggested all Chinese people in Indonesia to identify themselves as Indonesian people and agreed with the Indonesian expedient nationalist. Members of this group have 2 opinions. The first one agreed with the separation between totok and peranakan, meanwhile the second one did not agree about that, according to them the Chinese classic history had to be kept.
After World War II, Chinese people’s politic orientations were divided again. This situation was because of the changes of Indonesia social politic condition and the split of world politic polarization condition, which was divided to capitalist and communist. At that time, Indonesian nationalists focused their attention to reach independence from Dutch, and not fully gave attention to the form of nation, which was the synthesis of various ethnic groups.
The executing of the double-citizenship concept from China made this group was divided again. A part of them was ready to accept the Indonesian citizenship, but another part was unwilling to be Indonesian citizens. They who accepted Indonesian citizenship were also divided. Some insisted to keep separated Chinese identity in Indonesia. They saw the Indonesian citizenship as a political concept, and still wanted to keep Chinese culture. For example, Baperki suggested to keep the Chinese cultural and social organizations in Indonesia, but also encouraged them to participate in politic.
Baperki’s pluralism concept got challenge from the Chinese people who wanted total collaboration between Chinese people in Indonesia and the native Indonesian people, such as changing their names into Indonesian names, getting married with native Indonesian people, and eliminating Chinese schools. But changing their religion into Islam was not suggested, because lots of them were Christians. Yap Thiam Hien, a Christian lawyer refused this concept. According to him, every race and tribe was God’s creation and had to be accepted as well. He did not agree with “the elimination” of Chinese ethnic through total collaboration, and reminded that all races and tribes in Indonesia had to be treated equally.
There was another group that suggested Chinese people collaboration to religion changing as the solution for the Chinese problem in Indonesia, because with only one religion the problem would be solved easily through religion solidarity. This concept was said by Lauw Chuan Tho (Junus Jahja).
The interesting one was a radical group inspired by the communist. Differ from Baperki who saw Chinese people in Indonesia as an equal tribe with the other tribes, this group suggested Yin Hua Nationalism. It was a concept that suggested the minority against Javanese people domination through achieving each tribe’s independence. This group tried to make Chinese people in Indonesia became more Chinese and emphasized a strong relationship with China. It is important to remember that this group finally disappeared, it was unpopular because they assumed the Chinese people in Indonesia was a homogenous group who had to fight keeping their Chinese “nationality identity”.
Economic Status Becomes Central Issue
Leo Suryadinata concludes that the economic position of Chinese people is the real issue of the Chinese problem in Indonesia. This economic status develops follow the existing politic centripetal and affects each other. At the colonialism era, Chinese people became what were called middleman minority or mediator minority.
In social science theory, the mediator minority among multiethnic society stands between the dominant group and the subordinate group. They were created to play the role of serving authority importance / needs, and being the shield and scapegoat for the authority.
Authority minority functions as mediator in economic system by doing economic duties for them who are at the top of authorization. Because of they are minority, they are politically powerless and urged to ask for protection from authority, which will give them as much economic role they need. Their lives are politically set up to move only at one field, that is economy and trade. At the other side, if there are rebellions from subordinate group majority, they will be sacrifice. Several times, chaos that happens are set up to fulfil the authority economic importance by giving “save feeling” to mediator minority. That’s why this group is very fragile of enmity from outside of its ethnic group.
Charles Choppel, Australian researcher describes the position of Chinese people in Indonesia is like this:
“… talking about politic, Chinese people are like eating simalakama fruit. If they support opposition, they’ll be assumed being subversive. If they support authority, they’ll be assumed being opportunistic. But if they get rid of politic, they’ll be assumed that they only interested in looking for benefit”.
Chinese Problem at the Reformation Era
After reformation 1998, Mely G. Tan notice several Chinese people’s political attitude come up. (1) Most goes to work calmly, like nothing happened, without giving any political participation, but only hoping and praying so that they and their entire family are leaved alone. (2) A part of them refuse to surrender. They believe that Chinese people in Indonesia are as the same as other people who have to participate actively in politic, and take a part in the decision making process, especially in the legislative institution. (3) The 3rd group is they who feel need to have supporting group that is called “paguyuban” to hold each other among the same fate friends. (4) And the 4th group is they who join with or give their voice to political parties exist, or political parties that are just formed which want to fight their importance.
…
The Chinese problem in Indonesia is complicated. This problem grows and changes follow the political dynamics. This problem is closely related to political identity, relationship with foreign power, in this case is China, and economic position.
The resurgence of Chinese economy and the beginning of new era in admittance of Chinese people as the part from Indonesian history, definitely affect the status of “The Chinese Problem in Indonesia”. The born of new generation that speaks Mandarin fluently and can freely express Chinese culture, also takes an important role, because in their hand the problem and the history will be handed.
(redaksi)
Love and hate relationship. That’s the terminology used by Mely G. Tan, a senior socialist, to describe the relationship between Chinese people and other ethnics in Indonesia. At one side, Chinese people are loved, for example on badminton games. But on the other side, Chinese people are not just once being victims by mass amuck.
What causes a dark history for an ethnic that is the third biggest amount from Indonesian people? Leo Suryadinata says that it is because the trade and economic activity, the relation with foreign culture, the ethnic relation with China, and the influence over the sum power, so that the politic, culture, and economy caused by the minority become the Chinese problem in Indonesia.
Since when did the problem arise? Didn’t Chinese people come to Indonesia since the first century? How does this problem still exist until today?
What Happened in The Past
The relationship between China and Archipelago (Indonesia) has been connected for centuries, even before this country existed. There are proofs about this. Begin with prehistoric proof, such as the axe from Neolithic era, the Moslem spreading, batik pattern at the east coast Java, until Hindu ceremony at Bali, and much more. During that time, the Chinese people and the other ethnics lived side by side in peace for centuries, and affected the way of live of the societies.
Entering the 18th and 19th century, China economic situation affected the immigration flow of its citizens. The economy had stagnation at the end of Qing Dynasty authority. At the same time, the Dutch came to Indonesia, opened new mines and needed lots of workers. The opening of Suez Canal also affected great immigration of Chinese women, so that Chinese men, who before that married the local women, preferred to marry the same nationality women. During the 19th century, the growths of Chinese people in Batavia were five times higher, from 100,000 people became 500,000 people.
At this time the Chinese racialism began. The Dutch with its devide et impera politic that was purposed to separate and authorize, needed a way to imperishable its power in Indonesia. At that time, Chinese people had already had trade network that was pioneered for centuries during the Silk Road was connected. Then the competition between VOC and Chinese trader came up. The Dutch forced Pass and Zoning system – grouping Chinese people at a certain area. Then came up what people call Pecinan. Chinese people had to use pass ticket to get out of the Pecinan area, they were only permitted to study at the Chinese special school. The Dutch also divide the residents into 3 classes; they were the Dutch people, the East Asia people (Chinese people), and the native people.
This colonialism made Chinese people developed their own culture. Plus with the anti-Manchuria action and the fall of dynasty era, grew nationalism. Nationality identity as a nation overseas came up. The declaration of republic country by Dr. Sun Yat Sen and the expansion to Japan made nationalism nostalgia about forbear land more came up.
Then, come up the separating wall between Chinese people and the majority of Indonesian people. Dutch once again used this condition. Some chaos was on purpose created among the Chinese community, and the Dutch showed as the redeemer. So that, it was like that Dutch was a hero for Chinese people. The native people thought that Chinese people were the Dutch’s ally.
This problem was inherited by the Dutch as a wound, which was wounded again and again. During revolution time in the year 1945 – 1949, again the racialism explosion was created to make bad impression if the Dutch gave its authority up to Indonesia as a young republic country.
Unfortunately, the same trick was done through the New Order. Chinese people were used as scapegoats and milk-cows, and leaded to be economic animal. They were politically weak and economically used.
It was very ironic, the deceiving propaganda of Dutch and New Order government was believed by most of Indonesian people. Their image was believed as one rich homogenous group; did not care about nationality problem, greedy, looked for own benefit, and exclusive. These things were always said again and again for more than 30 years. Though if we look deeper, there was never a same opinion among the Chinese people in Indonesia.
Chinese People Heterogeneity in Indonesia
Not much people realize the fact that Chinese people in Indonesia are never homogenous. Culturally, they are divided to totok and crossbreed. Totok is labelled to them who come from China, speak Mandarin, and less fluent speaking Indonesia. Crossbreed is the generations that are born and live in Indonesia, and speak Indonesian.
In religion matter, they are Christians, Catholics, Buddhists, Khonghucu, and not less of Moslems.
Economically, not all of them are rich trader as said in the meantime. Many Chinese people work as labours, fishermen, farmers, and live in poor such as at Tangerang – Banten area and Singkawang – Kalimantan.
Legally, they are classified as Indonesian citizens (WNI – Warga Negara Indonesia) and foreign citizens (WNA – Warga Negara Asing). Foreign citizens are divided to pro-Beijing and pro-Taiwan.
Chinese people’s politic orientations were different from each other. During the Dutch colonialism, Chinese people politic orientation was divided into they who were oriented to China, they who were oriented to Dutch, and they who were oriented to Indonesia. They who were oriented to China hated pressures from Dutch and supported the form of the Republic of China. They who were oriented to Dutch like Chung Hwa Hui kept the peranakan culture with the taste of Dutch. They also agreed with Dutch education. The Chinese nationalist people, such as Partai Tionghoa Indonesia, openly against the Chinese people who pro-Dutch and suggested all Chinese people in Indonesia to identify themselves as Indonesian people and agreed with the Indonesian expedient nationalist. Members of this group have 2 opinions. The first one agreed with the separation between totok and peranakan, meanwhile the second one did not agree about that, according to them the Chinese classic history had to be kept.
After World War II, Chinese people’s politic orientations were divided again. This situation was because of the changes of Indonesia social politic condition and the split of world politic polarization condition, which was divided to capitalist and communist. At that time, Indonesian nationalists focused their attention to reach independence from Dutch, and not fully gave attention to the form of nation, which was the synthesis of various ethnic groups.
The executing of the double-citizenship concept from China made this group was divided again. A part of them was ready to accept the Indonesian citizenship, but another part was unwilling to be Indonesian citizens. They who accepted Indonesian citizenship were also divided. Some insisted to keep separated Chinese identity in Indonesia. They saw the Indonesian citizenship as a political concept, and still wanted to keep Chinese culture. For example, Baperki suggested to keep the Chinese cultural and social organizations in Indonesia, but also encouraged them to participate in politic.
Baperki’s pluralism concept got challenge from the Chinese people who wanted total collaboration between Chinese people in Indonesia and the native Indonesian people, such as changing their names into Indonesian names, getting married with native Indonesian people, and eliminating Chinese schools. But changing their religion into Islam was not suggested, because lots of them were Christians. Yap Thiam Hien, a Christian lawyer refused this concept. According to him, every race and tribe was God’s creation and had to be accepted as well. He did not agree with “the elimination” of Chinese ethnic through total collaboration, and reminded that all races and tribes in Indonesia had to be treated equally.
There was another group that suggested Chinese people collaboration to religion changing as the solution for the Chinese problem in Indonesia, because with only one religion the problem would be solved easily through religion solidarity. This concept was said by Lauw Chuan Tho (Junus Jahja).
The interesting one was a radical group inspired by the communist. Differ from Baperki who saw Chinese people in Indonesia as an equal tribe with the other tribes, this group suggested Yin Hua Nationalism. It was a concept that suggested the minority against Javanese people domination through achieving each tribe’s independence. This group tried to make Chinese people in Indonesia became more Chinese and emphasized a strong relationship with China. It is important to remember that this group finally disappeared, it was unpopular because they assumed the Chinese people in Indonesia was a homogenous group who had to fight keeping their Chinese “nationality identity”.
Economic Status Becomes Central Issue
Leo Suryadinata concludes that the economic position of Chinese people is the real issue of the Chinese problem in Indonesia. This economic status develops follow the existing politic centripetal and affects each other. At the colonialism era, Chinese people became what were called middleman minority or mediator minority.
In social science theory, the mediator minority among multiethnic society stands between the dominant group and the subordinate group. They were created to play the role of serving authority importance / needs, and being the shield and scapegoat for the authority.
Authority minority functions as mediator in economic system by doing economic duties for them who are at the top of authorization. Because of they are minority, they are politically powerless and urged to ask for protection from authority, which will give them as much economic role they need. Their lives are politically set up to move only at one field, that is economy and trade. At the other side, if there are rebellions from subordinate group majority, they will be sacrifice. Several times, chaos that happens are set up to fulfil the authority economic importance by giving “save feeling” to mediator minority. That’s why this group is very fragile of enmity from outside of its ethnic group.
Charles Choppel, Australian researcher describes the position of Chinese people in Indonesia is like this:
“… talking about politic, Chinese people are like eating simalakama fruit. If they support opposition, they’ll be assumed being subversive. If they support authority, they’ll be assumed being opportunistic. But if they get rid of politic, they’ll be assumed that they only interested in looking for benefit”.
Chinese Problem at the Reformation Era
After reformation 1998, Mely G. Tan notice several Chinese people’s political attitude come up. (1) Most goes to work calmly, like nothing happened, without giving any political participation, but only hoping and praying so that they and their entire family are leaved alone. (2) A part of them refuse to surrender. They believe that Chinese people in Indonesia are as the same as other people who have to participate actively in politic, and take a part in the decision making process, especially in the legislative institution. (3) The 3rd group is they who feel need to have supporting group that is called “paguyuban” to hold each other among the same fate friends. (4) And the 4th group is they who join with or give their voice to political parties exist, or political parties that are just formed which want to fight their importance.
…
The Chinese problem in Indonesia is complicated. This problem grows and changes follow the political dynamics. This problem is closely related to political identity, relationship with foreign power, in this case is China, and economic position.
The resurgence of Chinese economy and the beginning of new era in admittance of Chinese people as the part from Indonesian history, definitely affect the status of “The Chinese Problem in Indonesia”. The born of new generation that speaks Mandarin fluently and can freely express Chinese culture, also takes an important role, because in their hand the problem and the history will be handed.
(redaksi)
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